Page 7 - Discussion Paper on Faecal Sludge Management in Urban India
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Discussion Paper
contamination of groundwater due to faecal risk of contamination; if the time is between
coliform bacteria, which causes tropical 25 and 30 days, the risk is low.26
enteropathy22 and stunting in children.23 Extent This sector also carries with it a social stigma
of contamination of groundwater is a contextual and a lack of suitable incentives in the sanitation
phenomenon since it is essentially dependent structure. Consequently, there are low returns on
on environmental context of the area, namely investment and funding is difficult for managing
the soil and hydrological conditions. In areas faecal sludge. In 2013, the Indian Parliament
closer to river basins and where the water table enacted The Prohibition of Employment as
is higher, the threats of water pollution, both Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act
surface water and groundwater, is significant. In (the 2013 Act) outlawed all manual cleaning of
densely populated areas such as urban slums and human excreta. The 2013 Act also recognized
low income communities where hand pumps a constitutional obligation to correct the
are used for drinking water, if the latrine is not historical injustice and indignity suffered by
properly lined or if there is a breakage in the lining, these communities by providing alternate
liquid leaches from the pit mixes with soil and the livelihood and other assistance. People who
pathogenic materials get absorbed in the soil, have left manual scavenging, even those who
thereby increasing the susceptibility of water- had the support of community-based civil
borne diseases. society initiatives, report significant barriers to
accessing housing, employment, and support
In a study conducted in the Kozikhode from existing government programmes. Notably,
District of Kerala, in the Calicut Corporation under the 2013 Act, rehabilitation provisions are
area, samples were collected from 24 different left to be implemented under existing central
dug wells seasonally (pre-monsoon, monsoon, and state government schemes—the same set of
and post monsoon), in different parts of the programmes that have not thus far succeeded in
city. Majority of the groundwater samples were ending manual scavenging.
found to be contaminated with bacteria, which
indicates faecal contamination and were declared Possibilities of sustainable FSM
unfit for drinking due to this reason. Most of
the contaminated wells were found to be near In comparison to laying sewer network across all
latrines, which exposed them to higher risks the cities in India, an integrated approach
of contamination.24 to FSM offers a much more economic and
better governance model. An integrated cycle
In order to maintain safe ground water of FSM (as shown in Figure 6) would
quality, there needs to be a vertical distance not only include safe containment and
of at least 3–4.5 metres between the transport of the sludge but also adequate
bottom of the toilet pit and the water table.25 treatment and reuse of the treated sludge in
various applications.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has
defined risk criteria in terms of the time required One of the most common uses is using faecal
for groundwater to travel from the toilets to sludge as a soil conditioner after treating it. For
drinking water facilities. In situations where the example, in Bamako, Mali, there is an integrated
travel time is less than 5 days, there is significant plant for organic waste and faecal sludge.
Solid waste and faecal sludge is collected and
22 Haghighi P, Wolf PL, 1997. Tropical sprue and subclinical enteropathy: transported to treatment sites. Faecal sludge is
A vision for the nineties. Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory screened before being subjected to treatment
Sciences 34(4): 313–341
26 Krishnan S, 2011. On-site Sanitation and Groundwater Contamination:
23 Chambers R, Von Medeazza G, 2013, Sanitation and Stunting in India. A Policy and Technical Review. From INREM Foundation Website
Undernutrition’s Blind Spot www.inrem.in/publication.html, Accessed on July 8, 2016.
24 Megha, P. , Kavya, P. , Murugan, S. and Harikumar, P. (2015) Sanitation
Mapping of Groundwater Contamination in a Rural Village of India.
Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 34-44. doi: 10.4236/
jep.2015.61005.
25 Graham J P, Polizzotto M L, 2013. Pit latrines and their impacts on
groundwater quality: A systematic review. Environmental Health
Perspectives, 121: 521–530.
DECEMBER 2016 7
contamination of groundwater due to faecal risk of contamination; if the time is between
coliform bacteria, which causes tropical 25 and 30 days, the risk is low.26
enteropathy22 and stunting in children.23 Extent This sector also carries with it a social stigma
of contamination of groundwater is a contextual and a lack of suitable incentives in the sanitation
phenomenon since it is essentially dependent structure. Consequently, there are low returns on
on environmental context of the area, namely investment and funding is difficult for managing
the soil and hydrological conditions. In areas faecal sludge. In 2013, the Indian Parliament
closer to river basins and where the water table enacted The Prohibition of Employment as
is higher, the threats of water pollution, both Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act
surface water and groundwater, is significant. In (the 2013 Act) outlawed all manual cleaning of
densely populated areas such as urban slums and human excreta. The 2013 Act also recognized
low income communities where hand pumps a constitutional obligation to correct the
are used for drinking water, if the latrine is not historical injustice and indignity suffered by
properly lined or if there is a breakage in the lining, these communities by providing alternate
liquid leaches from the pit mixes with soil and the livelihood and other assistance. People who
pathogenic materials get absorbed in the soil, have left manual scavenging, even those who
thereby increasing the susceptibility of water- had the support of community-based civil
borne diseases. society initiatives, report significant barriers to
accessing housing, employment, and support
In a study conducted in the Kozikhode from existing government programmes. Notably,
District of Kerala, in the Calicut Corporation under the 2013 Act, rehabilitation provisions are
area, samples were collected from 24 different left to be implemented under existing central
dug wells seasonally (pre-monsoon, monsoon, and state government schemes—the same set of
and post monsoon), in different parts of the programmes that have not thus far succeeded in
city. Majority of the groundwater samples were ending manual scavenging.
found to be contaminated with bacteria, which
indicates faecal contamination and were declared Possibilities of sustainable FSM
unfit for drinking due to this reason. Most of
the contaminated wells were found to be near In comparison to laying sewer network across all
latrines, which exposed them to higher risks the cities in India, an integrated approach
of contamination.24 to FSM offers a much more economic and
better governance model. An integrated cycle
In order to maintain safe ground water of FSM (as shown in Figure 6) would
quality, there needs to be a vertical distance not only include safe containment and
of at least 3–4.5 metres between the transport of the sludge but also adequate
bottom of the toilet pit and the water table.25 treatment and reuse of the treated sludge in
various applications.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has
defined risk criteria in terms of the time required One of the most common uses is using faecal
for groundwater to travel from the toilets to sludge as a soil conditioner after treating it. For
drinking water facilities. In situations where the example, in Bamako, Mali, there is an integrated
travel time is less than 5 days, there is significant plant for organic waste and faecal sludge.
Solid waste and faecal sludge is collected and
22 Haghighi P, Wolf PL, 1997. Tropical sprue and subclinical enteropathy: transported to treatment sites. Faecal sludge is
A vision for the nineties. Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory screened before being subjected to treatment
Sciences 34(4): 313–341
26 Krishnan S, 2011. On-site Sanitation and Groundwater Contamination:
23 Chambers R, Von Medeazza G, 2013, Sanitation and Stunting in India. A Policy and Technical Review. From INREM Foundation Website
Undernutrition’s Blind Spot www.inrem.in/publication.html, Accessed on July 8, 2016.
24 Megha, P. , Kavya, P. , Murugan, S. and Harikumar, P. (2015) Sanitation
Mapping of Groundwater Contamination in a Rural Village of India.
Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 34-44. doi: 10.4236/
jep.2015.61005.
25 Graham J P, Polizzotto M L, 2013. Pit latrines and their impacts on
groundwater quality: A systematic review. Environmental Health
Perspectives, 121: 521–530.
DECEMBER 2016 7
